How Did the Protestant Church Differ From the Catholic Church in Its Ideas About Religious Art?

Hans Holbein the Younger's Noli me tangere a relatively rare Protestant oil painting of Christ from the Reformation period. It is pocket-size, and generally naturalistic in fashion, avoiding iconic elements like the halo, which is barely discernible.

The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe most entirely rejected the existing tradition of Catholic art, and very often destroyed every bit much of it every bit it could reach. A new creative tradition developed, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed Protestant agendas and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and the humanist art produced during the High Renaissance. The Lutheran churches, equally they developed, accepted a limited role for larger works of fine art in churches,^{[ane] [ii]} and also encouraged prints and book illustrations. Calvinists remained steadfastly opposed to art in churches, and suspicious of small printed images of religious subjects, though mostly fully accepting secular images in their homes.

In plow, the Catholic Counter-Reformation both reacted against and responded to Protestant criticisms of art in Roman Catholicism to produce a more stringent style of Cosmic art. Protestant religious art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, only the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting, landscape painting, portrait painting and nonetheless life.

Fine art and the Reformation [edit]

The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in a carve up in Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement "created a North-Due south dissever in Europe, where generally Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Cosmic."^[3]

The Reformation produced two chief branches of Protestantism; one was the Evangelical Lutheran churches, which followed the teachings of Martin Luther, and the other the Reformed Churches, which followed the ideas of John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli. Out of these branches grew three main sects, the Lutheran tradition, every bit well equally the Continental Reformed and Anglican traditions, the latter two following the Reformed (Calvinist) faith.^[four] Lutherans and Reformed Christians had different views regarding religious imagery.^{[5] [2]}

Martin Luther in Germany immune and encouraged the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches, seeing the Evangelical Lutheran Church as a continuation of the "ancient, apostolic church building".^[two] The use of images was one of the issues where Luther strongly opposed the more radical Andreas Karlstadt. For a few years Lutheran altarpieces like the Last Supper past the younger Cranach were produced in Germany, especially by Luther'southward friend Lucas Cranach, to supplant Catholic ones, often containing portraits of leading reformers every bit the apostles or other protagonists, but retaining the traditional depiction of Jesus. As such, "Lutheran worship became a circuitous ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church building interior."^[one] Lutherans continued the use of the crucifix as it highlighted their high view of the Theology of the Cross.^{[ii] [vi]} Stories grew up of "indestructible" images of Luther, that had survived fires, past divine intervention.^[seven] Thus, for Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image."^[8]

On the other hand, there was a wave of iconoclasm, or the destruction of religious imagery. This began very early in the Reformation, when students in Erfurt destroyed a wooden altar in the Franciscan friary in December 1521.^[9] Later, Reformed Christianity showed consequent hostility to religious images, every bit idolatry, especially sculpture and big paintings. Book illustrations and prints were more than acceptable, considering they were smaller and more private. Reformed leaders, particularly Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, actively eliminated imagery from churches within the command of their followers, and regarded the great bulk of religious images every bit idolatrous.^[ten] Early Calvinists were even suspicious of portraits of clergy; Christopher Hales (soon to be one of the Marian exiles) tried to accept portraits of 6 divines sent to him from Zurich, and felt it necessary to explain his motives in a letter of 1550: "this is non done ....with a view to making idols of y'all; they are desired for the reasons which I have mentioned, and not for the sake of honour or veneration".^[11]

The destruction was often extremely divisive and traumatic within communities, an unmistakable concrete manifestation, oftentimes imposed from above, that could not be ignored. It was only for this reason that reformers favoured a single dramatic coup, and many premature acts in this line sharply increased subsequent hostility between Catholics and Calvinists in communities – for it was mostly at the level of the city, boondocks or hamlet that such actions occurred, except in England and Scotland.

But reformers often felt impelled past strong personal convictions, equally shown by the instance of Frau Göldli, on which Zwingli was asked to propose. She was a Swiss lady who had once made a promise to Saint Apollinaris that if she recovered from an illness she would donate an prototype of the saint to a local convent, which she did. Later she turned Protestant, and feeling she must opposite what she at present saw as a incorrect action, she went to the convent church, removed the statue and burnt information technology. Prosecuted for blasphemy, she paid a pocket-sized fine without complaint, but flatly refused to pay the boosted sum the court ordered be paid to the convent to replace the statue, putting her at risk of serious penalties. Zwingli's letter advised trying to pay the nuns a larger sum on condition they did not replace the statue, simply the eventual result is unknown.^[12] By the end of his life, after iconoclastic shows of forcefulness became a feature of the early on phases of the French Wars of Religion, even Calvin became alarmed and criticised them, realizing that they had get counter-productive.^[xiii]

Daniel Hisgen's paintings are more often than not cycles on the parapets of Lutheran church galleries. Here the Creation (left) to the Proclamation can be seen.

Subjects prominent in Catholic art other than Jesus and events in the Bible, such as Mary and saints were given much less emphasis or disapproved of in Protestant theology. As a result, in much of northern Europe, the Church virtually ceased to commission figurative art, placing the dictation of content entirely in the hands of the artists and lay consumers. Calvinism even objected to not-religious funerary art, such every bit the heraldry and effigies beloved of the Renaissance rich.^[fourteen] Where there was religious art, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Narrative scenes from the Bible, especially as book illustrations and prints, and, later, moralistic depictions of modernistic life were preferred. Both Cranachs painted emblematic scenes setting out Lutheran doctrines, in particular a series on Law and Gospel. Daniel Hisgen, a German Rococo painter of the 18th century in Upper Hesse, specialized in cycles of biblical paintings decorating the front of the gallery parapet in Lutheran churches with an upper gallery, a less prominent position that satisfied Lutheran scruples. Wooden organ cases were also often painted with similar scenes to those in Cosmic churches.

Lutherans strongly defended their existing sacred fine art from a new wave of Calvinist-on-Lutheran iconoclasm in the 2nd half of the century, as Calvinist rulers or city authorities attempted to impose their will on Lutheran populations in the "2d Reformation" of about 1560–1619.^{[2] [15]} Against the Reformed, Lutherans exclaimed: "You black Calvinist, you lot give permission to boom our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return".^[2] The Beeldenstorm, a big and very disorderly wave of Calvinist mob destruction of Catholic images and church fittings that spread through the Low Countries in the summertime of 1566 was the largest outbreak of this sort, with drastic political repercussions.^[16] This campaign of Calvinist iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Frg and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region.^[17] Similar patterns to the German deportment, just with the improver of encouragement and sometimes finance from the national regime, were seen in Anglican England in the English Ceremonious War and English Commonwealth in the adjacent century, when more damage was done to art in medieval parish churches than during the English Reformation.

A major theological difference between Protestantism and Catholicism is the question of transubstantiation, or the literal transformation of the Communion wafer and wine into the body and blood of Christ, though both Lutheran and Reformed Christians affirmed the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the old as a sacramental matrimony and the latter every bit a pneumatic presence.^[18] Protestant churches that were not participating in the iconoclasm often selected as altarpieces scenes depicting the Last Supper. This helped the worshippers to recall their theology behind the Eucharist, as opposed to Catholic churches, which oft chose crucifixion scenes for their altarpieces to remind the worshippers that the sacrifice of Christ and the cede of the Mass were one and the same, via the literal transformation of the Eucharist.

The Protestant Reformation likewise capitalized on the popularity of printmaking in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to be mass-produced and widely available to the public at depression toll. This immune for the widespread availability of visually persuasive imagery. The Protestant church was therefore able, as the Catholic Church building had been doing since the early 15th century, to bring their theology to the people, and religious education was brought from the church into the homes of the common people, thereby forming a directly link between the worshippers and the divine.

There was also a trigger-happy propaganda war fought partly with pop prints by both sides; these were frequently highly scurrilous caricatures of the other side and their doctrines. On the Protestant side, portraits of the leading reformers were popular, and their likenesses sometimes represented the Apostles and other figures in Biblical scenes such equally the Last Supper.

Genre and landscape [edit]

After the early years of the reformation, artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public display, although there was a conscious effort to develop a Protestant iconography of Bible analogy in volume illustrations and prints. In the early Reformation artists, particularly Cranach the Elder and Younger and Holbein, made paintings for churches showing the leaders of the reformation in ways very similar to Cosmic saints. Later Protestant taste turned from the display in churches of religious scenes, although some connected to be displayed in homes. There was also a reaction against large images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of loftier way at the fourth dimension. This brought almost a manner that was more directly related to accurately portraying the nowadays times. The traditions of landscapes and genre paintings that would fully flower in the 17th century began during this period.

Peter Bruegel (1525–1569) of Flemish region is the great genre painter of his fourth dimension, who worked for both Cosmic and Protestant patrons. In almost of his paintings, even when depicting religious scenes, nearly space is given to mural or peasant life in 16th century Flanders. Bruegel'southward Wedding Feast, portrays a Flemish-peasant wedding dinner in a barn, which makes no reference to any religious, historical or classical events, and merely gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant. Another peachy painter of his age, Lucas van Leyden (1489–1533), is known more often than not for his engravings, such equally The Milkmaid, which depicts peasants with milk cows. This engraving, from 1510, well before the Reformation, contains no reference to organized religion or classicism, although much of his other work features both.

Bruegel was too an accomplished landscape painter. Oftentimes Bruegel painted agronomical landscapes, such as Summertime from his famous set of the seasons, where he shows peasants harvesting wheat in the land, with a few workers taking a dejeuner break under a nearby tree. This type of mural painting, obviously void of religious or classical connotations, gave birth to a long line of northern European landscape artists, such as Jacob van Ruisdael.

With the great evolution of the engraving and printmaking market in Antwerp in the 16th century, the public was provided with accessible and affordable images. Many artists provided drawings to book and print publishers, including Bruegel. In 1555 Bruegel began working for The Four Winds, a publishing house owned by Hieronymus Cock. The Four Winds provided the public with almost a thousand etchings and engravings over two decades. Betwixt 1555 and 1563 Bruegel supplied Cock with almost forty drawings, which were engraved for the Flemish public.

The courtly style of Northern Mannerism in the second half of the century has been seen as partly motivated by the want of rulers in both the Holy Roman Empire and French republic to find a style of fine art that could appeal to members of the courtly elite on both sides of the religious divide.^[nineteen] Thus religious controversy had the rather ironic effect of encouraging classical mythology in art, since though they might disapprove, fifty-fifty the well-nigh stern Calvinists could not credibly claim that 16th century mythological art really represented idolatry.

Quango of Trent [edit]

During the Reformation a groovy divergence arose between the Cosmic Church and the Protestant Reformers of the due north regarding the content and style of art work. The Catholic Church viewed Protestantism and Reformed iconoclasm as a threat to the church and in response came together at the Council of Trent to institute some of their ain reforms. The church felt that much religious art in Catholic countries (especially Italia) had lost its focus on religious field of study-matter, and became too interested in material things and decorative qualities. The quango came together periodically between 1545 and 1563. The reforms that resulted from this quango are what set the footing for what is known as the Counter-Reformation.

Italian painting after the 1520s, with the notable exception of the fine art of Venice, developed into Mannerism, a highly sophisticated fashion, striving for effect, that concerned many churchman equally lacking entreatment for the mass of the population. Church pressure to restrain religious imagery affected fine art from the 1530s and resulted in the decrees of the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563 including brusk and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, which were to have great affect on the development of Cosmic fine art. Previous Catholic Church councils had rarely felt the demand to pronounce on these matters, unlike Orthodox ones which accept often ruled on specific types of images.

Statements are often made forth the lines of "The decrees of the Council of Trent stipulated that fine art was to be direct and compelling in its narrative presentation, that it was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saint's life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that it was to encourage piety",^[twenty] but in fact the actual decrees of the quango were far less explicit than this, though all of these points were probably in line with their intentions. The very short passage dealing with fine art came just in the final session in 1563, equally a last minute and piddling-discussed addition, based on a French draft. The decree confirmed the traditional doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person themself, non the paradigm, and farther instructed that:

...every superstition shall be removed ... all lasciviousness exist avoided; in such wise that figures shall not be painted or adorned with a dazzler exciting to lust... there be nothing seen that is hell-raising, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly arranged, nothing that is profane, nothing indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the business firm of God. And that these things may be the more faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no ane be immune to identify, or cause to be placed, whatever unusual prototype, in any place, or church, howsoever exempted, except that image have been approved of by the bishop ...^[21]

The number of decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, as did "unbecomingly or confusedly arranged" Mannerist pieces, as a number of books, notably past the Flemish theologian Molanus, Saint Charles Borromeo and Primal Gabriele Paleotti, and instructions past local bishops, amplified the decrees, oftentimes going into minute detail on what was acceptable. Many traditional iconographies considered without adequate scriptural foundation were in effect prohibited, every bit was any inclusion of classical pagan elements in religious art, and virtually all nudity, including that of the babe Jesus.^[22] According to the great medievalist Émile Mâle, this was "the death of medieval fine art".^[23]

Art and the Counter-Reformation [edit]

While Calvinists largely removed public fine art from religion and Reformed societies moved towards more "secular" forms of art which might exist said to glorify God through the portrayal of the "natural dazzler of His creation and past depicting people who were created in His image",^[24] Counter-Reformation Cosmic church continued to encourage religious art, only insisted it was strictly religious in content, glorifying God and Catholic traditions, including the sacraments and the saints.^[25] Likewise, "Lutheran places of worship contain images and sculptures non only of Christ but besides of biblical and occasionally of other saints as well equally prominent decorated pulpits due to the importance of preaching, stained drinking glass, ornate furniture, magnificent examples of traditional and modern architecture, carved or otherwise embellished altar pieces, and liberal use of candles on the altar and elsewhere."^[26] The main difference between Lutheran and Roman Cosmic places of worship was the presence of the tabernacle in the latter.^[26]

Sydney Joseph Freedberg, who invented the term Counter-Maniera, cautions against connecting this more austere style in religious painting, which spread from Rome from nearly 1550, too direct with the decrees of Trent, equally it pre-dates these by several years. He describes the decrees every bit "a codifying and official sanction of a temper that had come up to be conspicuous in Roman culture".^[27]

Scipione Pulzone'due south (1550–1598) painting of the Lamentation which was deputed for the Church building of the Gesù in 1589 is a Counter-Maniera work that gives a clear demonstration of what the holy council was striving for in the new style of religious fine art. With the focus of the painting giving directly attention to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the passion while keeping Christ in the image of the ideal human.

X years afterwards the Council of Trent's prescript Paolo Veronese was summoned by the Inquisition to explain why his Last Supper, a huge sail for the refectory of a monastery, contained, in the words of the Inquisition: "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" as well as extravagant costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast.^[28] Veronese was told that he must modify his indecorous painting inside a 3-month catamenia – in fact he just changed the title to The Banquet in the House of Levi, still an episode from the Gospels, merely a less doctrinally central one, and no more was said.^[29] No doubt whatsoever Protestant authorities would have been equally disapproving. The pre-existing decline in "donor portraits" (those who had paid for an altarpiece or other painting being placed inside the painting) was also accelerated; these go rare afterward the Council.

Repentance of Peter by El Greco, 1580–1586.

Further waves of "Counter-Reformation art" occurred when areas formerly Protestant were once more brought nether Catholic dominion. The churches were normally empty of images, and such periods could represent a blast fourth dimension for artists. The best known example is the new Spanish Netherlands (substantially modern Kingdom of belgium), which had been the centre of Protestantism in kingdom of the netherlands merely became (initially) exclusively Catholic after the Castilian drove the Protestants to the n, where they established the United Provinces. Rubens was i of a number of Flemish Baroque painters who received many commissions, and produced several of his all-time known works re-filling the empty churches.^[30] Several cities in France in the French wars of religion and in Germany, Bohemia and elsewhere in the Thirty Years War saw like bursts of restocking.

The rather extreme pronouncement by a synod in Antwerp in 1610 that in future the central panels of altarpieces should only show New Testament scenes was certainly ignored in the cases of many paintings by Rubens and other Flemish artists (and in particular the Jesuits continued to commission altarpieces centred on their saints), simply nonetheless New Testament subjects probably did increase.^[31] Altarpieces became larger and more easy to make out from a distance, and the large painted or gilded carved wooden altarpieces that were the pride of many northern late medieval cities were often replaced with paintings.^[32]

Some subjects were given increased prominence to reverberate Counter-Reformation emphases. The Repentance of Peter, showing the end of the episode of the Denial of Peter, was not often seen earlier the Counter-Reformation, when it became pop as an assertion of the sacrament of Confession against Protestant attacks. This followed an influential book past the Jesuit Fundamental Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621). The image typically shows Peter in tears, equally a half-length portrait with no other figures, often with hands clasped as at right, and sometimes "the cock" in the groundwork; it was often coupled with a repentant Mary Magdalen, another exemplar from Bellarmine's book.^[33]

As the Counter-Reformation grew stronger and the Catholic Church felt less threat from the Protestant Reformation, Rome once again began to assert its universality to other nations around the globe. The religious order of the Jesuits or the Lodge of Jesus, sent missionaries to the Americas, parts of Africa, India and eastern Asia and used the arts as an effective means of articulating their message of the Catholic Church'due south authorization over the Christian organized religion. The Jesuits' impact was so profound during their missions of the time that today very similar styles of art from the Counter-Reformation period in Cosmic Churches are found all over the earth.

Despite the differences in approaches to religious fine art, stylistic developments passed nearly as quickly across religious divisions as within the two "blocs". Artistically Rome remained in closer touch with the Netherlands than with Spain.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Spicer, Andrew (5 December 2016). Lutheran Churches in Early Modern Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 237. ISBN9781351921169. As it developed in north-eastern Germany, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the background of an epitaph painted in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure 5.five.).
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593. Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, more often than not with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this twenty-four hours one finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Cosmic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and architecture survived. Joseph Leo Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the aboriginal, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the employ of images. "An empty, white-done church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther'due south doctrine of Christ'south real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You lot black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of fine art continued to exist displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's theologia crucis. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also generally absent.
3. ^ The Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Historicist and Causes of the Reformation. New Advent.
4. ^ Picken, Stuart D.B. (sixteen December 2011). Historical Lexicon of Calvinism. Scarecrow Printing. p. 1. ISBN9780810872240. While Deutschland and the Scandinavian countries adopted the Lutheran model of church and state, France, Switzerland, the netherlands, Hungary, what is now the Czechia, and Scotland created Reformed Churches based, in varying ways, on the model Calvin set up in Geneva. Although England pursued the Reformation ideal in its own mode, leading to the formation of the Anglican Communion, the theology of the Thirty-9 Articles of the Church of England were heavily influenced past Calvinism.
5. ^ Nuechterlein, Jeanne Elizabeth (2000). Holbein and the Reformation of Fine art. University of California, Berkeley.
6. ^ Marquardt, Janet T.; Hashemite kingdom of jordan, Alyce A. (fourteen January 2009). Medieval Art and Architecture subsequently the Eye Ages. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN9781443803984. In fact, Lutherans oft justified their continued utilize of medieval crucifixes with the aforementioned arguments employed since the Middle Ages, equally is evident from the example of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church of Doberan.
7. ^ Michalski, 89
8. ^ Dixon, C. Scott (nine March 2012). Battling the Reformation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146. ISBN9781118272305. Co-ordinate to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.
9. ^ Noble, nineteen, annotation 12
10. ^ Institutes, 1:xi, section vii on crosses
11. ^ Campbell, Lorne, Renaissance Portraits, European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries, p. 193, 1990, Yale, ISBN 0300046758; Hales was the brother of John Hales (died 1572)
12. ^ Michalski, 87-88
13. ^ Michalski, 73-74
14. ^ Michalski, 72-73
15. ^ Michalski, 84. Google books
16. ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (ane January 2010). Gardner'southward Art through the Ages: A Curtailed History of Western Art. Cengage Learning. p. 254. ISBN9781424069224. In an episode known as the Keen Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Catholic churches in the Netherlands in 1566, shattering stained-glass windows, smashing statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived equally idolatrous.
17. ^ Marshall, Peter (22 October 2009). The Reformation. Oxford University Press. p. 114. ISBN9780191578885. Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist 'Second Reformation' in Germany provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs, while Protestant image-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might have hoped to make common cause.
18. ^ Mattox, Mickey 50.; Roeber, A. Grand. (27 February 2012). Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Theological Conversation. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 54. ISBN9780802866943. In this "sacramental union," Lutherans taught, the trunk and blood of Christ are and so truly united to the staff of life and wine of the Holy Communion that the ii may be identified. They are at the aforementioned fourth dimension body and blood, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more-over, not simply for the strengthening of faith, nor only equally a sign of our unity in organized religion, nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more than, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the union of faith. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the spousal relationship of faith, effected past God's Word and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate wedlock with Christ, in other words, leads directly to the almost intimate communion in his holy trunk and blood.
19. ^ Trevor-Roper, 98-101 on Rudolf, and Stiff, Pt. two, Affiliate 3 on French republic, especially pp. 98-101, 112-113.
20. ^ Art in Renaissance Italian republic. Paoletti, John T., and Gary M. Radke. Pg. 514.
21. ^ Text of the 25th decree of the Council of Trent
22. ^ Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italian republic, 1450-1660, affiliate Viii, peculiarly pp. 107-128, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0-nineteen-881050-4
23. ^ The death of Medieval Art Extract from book by Émile Mâle
24. ^ Fine art of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Nosotro, Rit.
25. ^ The Art of the Counter Reformation. Metropolitan Museum of Fine art.
26. ^ ^{a b} Lamport, Mark A. (31 Baronial 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593.
27. ^ (Sidney) Freedberg, 427–428, 427 quoted
28. ^ "Transcript of Veronese's testimony". Archived from the original on 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2007-03-26 .
29. ^ David Rostand, Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto, 2d ed 1997, Cambridge Upwardly ISBN 0-521-56568-5
30. ^ (David) Freedberg, throughout
31. ^ (David) Freedberg, 139-140
32. ^ (David) Freedberg, 141
33. ^ Hall, pp. 10 and 315

References [edit]

• David Freedberg, "Painting and the Counter-Reformation", from the catalogue to The Historic period of Rubens, 1993, Boston/Toledo, Ohio, online PDF
• Freedburg, Sidney J. Painting in Italy, 1500–1600, 3rd edn. 1993, Yale, ISBN 0300055870
• James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Fine art, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0-7195-3971-4
• Michalski, Sergiusz. Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Image Question in Western and Eastern Europe, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-203-41425-X, 9780203414255 Google Books
• Noble, Bonnie (2009). Lucas Cranach the Elder: Fine art and Devotion of the High german Reformation. University Press of America. ISBN978-0-7618-4337-5.
• Roy Strong; Fine art and Ability; Renaissance Festivals 1450-1650, 1984, The Boydell Press;ISBN 0-85115-200-7
• Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Credo at Four Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0-500-23232-vi

Further reading [edit]

• Avalli-Bjorkman, Gorel. "A Bolognese Portrait of a Butcher." The Burlington Magazine 141 (1999).
• Caldwell, Dorigen. "Reviewing Counter-Reformation Art." v Feb. 2007 [i].
• Christensen, Carl C. "Art and the Reformation in Germany." The Sixteenth Century Periodical Athens: Ohio Upwardly, 12 (1979): 100.
• Coulton, G Thousand. "Fine art and the Reformation Reviews." Art Bulletin 11 (1928).
• Honig, Elizabeth. Painting and the Market in Early Modern Antwerp. New Oasis: Yale UP, 1998.
• Koerner, Joseph L. The Reformation of the Image. London: The University of Chicago P, 2004.
• Knipping, John Baptist, Iconography of the Counter Reformation in kingdom of the netherlands: Sky on Earth 2 vols, 1974
• Mayor, A. Hyatt, "The Art of the Counter Reformation." The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art Bulletin 4 (1945).
• Silver, Larry. Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: the Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Fine art Market place. Philadelphia: University Pennsylvania P, 2006.
• Wisse, Jacob. "The Reformation." In Timeline of Fine art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000- [two] (October 2002).

External links [edit]

• Review of The Reformation of the Paradigm by Joseph Leo Koerner, past Eamon Duffy, London Review of Books

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation

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